A REVIEW OF COMMON PLANTS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF TYPHOID FEVER: ACTIVE COMPONENTS AND TOXICITY RELATED ISSUES
Keywords:
Plant extracts, Active components, Toxicity, Typhoid fever.Abstract
Majority of plants and their extracts are a primary source of health care in most communities. The usage of plants in the treatment of diseases has been observed in ancient times and still applicable in the present. Plants extracts are used due to their easy availability and affordability. Some of these extracts are being sold locally in markets while others manufactured and used in household settings. Most often , the producers of these extracts do not show proof of safety and efficacy before marketing these products. Consequently , the negative effects and the downside following the consumption of these products remain unknown. Moreover , the plant extracts are not regulated for purity and potency. Impurities present and the potency of the plant products might also contribute significantly to adverse effects following consumption. In most developing countries especially Africa , traditional methods involving plant extracts have mostly been employed in the treatment of typhoid fever. Even though the extracts from these plants have proven to be efficient in the treatment of typhoid , there’s currently not enough evidence to make precise dosage recommendations for each of the common plant products. This document reviews the common plants used in the treatment of typhoid fever , their active components and the toxicity related issue following their indiscriminate consumption. Knowledge of the risk and toxicity effects will lead to the control of the usage of the product by consumers. There is however a need to subject the extracts from these plants to further studies so as to effectively standardize the safe dose needed in the treatment of this disease.References
[1] Crump JA, Luby SP, and Mintz ED (2004).The global burden of typhoid fever. Bull World Health Organ 82: 346–353. PMID: 15298225
[2] Butt T, Ahmad RN, Mahmood A, Zaidi S (2003) Ciprofloxacin treatment failure in typhoid fever case, Pakistan. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1621-1622.
[3] Crump JA, Sj?lund-Karlsson M, Gordon MA, Parry CM (2015). Epidemiology, clinical presentation,Teh Exodus Akwa VOLUME 3, ISSUE 1, PP 6-14, MAY 2021 12 laboratory diagnosis, antimicrobial resistance, and antimicrobial management of invasive Salmonella infections. Clin Microbiol Rev; 28(4): 901–37. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00002-15 PMID: 26180063
[4] Hasan BB, Soghra M, Hossein H (2017). Toxicology effects of saffron and its constituents: a review. Iran J Basic Med Sci.20(2):110–21.
[5] Gul S, Eraj A, Ashraf Z. (2015). Glycyrrhiza glabra and Azadirachta indica against Salmonella typhi: herbal treatment as an alternative therapy for typhoid fever. iMedPub J (Arch Med), 7(6/4), 1-5.
[6] Rajakani R, Narnoliya L, Sangwan NS, Sangwan RS, Gupta V. (2014). Subtractive transcriptomes of fruit and leaf reveal differential representation of transcripts in Azadirachta indica. Tree Genetics & Genomes, 10(5), 1331–1351.
[7] Brindha MS, kariyarasi S, Annadurai NS, Gangwar SK (2012) Antimicrobial activity in leaf extract of Neem (Azadirachta indica). International journal of science and Natural; 3: 110.
[8] Kokate C, Purohit AP, Gokhale SB (2010). Pharmacognosy. Maharashtra, India: Nirali Prakashan; 2010.
[9] Hossain MA, Shah MD, Sakari M (2014). Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of various organic extracts of Merremia borneensis from Sabah. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 4(8):637–641. doi: 10.1016/s1995- 7645(11)60162-4.
[10] Deng YX, Cao M, Shi DX (2013). Toxicological evaluation of neem (Azadirachta indica) oil: acute and subacute toxicity. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology; 35(2):240–246. doi: 10.1016/j.etap.
[11] Jaiswal AK, Bhattacharya SK, Acharya SB (1994). Anxiolytic activity of Azadirachta indica leaf extract in rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology; 32(7):489–491.
[12] Lai SM, Lim KW, Cheng HK (1990). Margosa oil poisoning as a cause of toxic encephalopathy. Singapore Medical Journal. 1990;31(5):463–465.
[13] Orwa CA, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S (2009). Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0.
[14] Moronkola, DO, Yeboah SO, Majinda RR and Sichilongo K (2015). Compositions of Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poiret leaf and stem essential oils. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 7(5), 959-964.
[15] More NV, Datkar SM, Bhagat RP, Patil VV. (2018). Plants as a source of a novel anti-typhoid therapeutic agents: A Review.
[16] Oboh G, Akomolafe TL, Adefegha SA, Adetuyi AO (2010). Antioxidant and modulatory effect of ethanolic extract of Madagascar Harungana (Harungana madagascariensis) bark on cyclophosphamide induced neurotoxicity in rats. J Food Drug Anal;18(3):171–9.
[17] Shorinwa AO, Monsi B (2020). Toxicological implications of the fruit of Harungana madagascariensis on wistar rats. Clinical Phytoscience :6:2 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40816- 019-0145-8
[18] Biapa PCN, Oben JE, Ngogang JY (2012). Acute and subacute toxicity of Harungana madagascariensis Lam. Afri J Pharm Sci Pharm;3(1):45–7.
[19] Bensky, Dan (2004). Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition. Eastland Press. ISBN 978-0-939616-42-8.
[20] Roshan A (2012) A phytochemical constituents pharmacological activities and medicinal plant use through millennia the Glycyrrhiza glabra. International